The results showed that the leaflet did increase womens coherent model of the association between smoking and cervical cancer. Poor resources may make people feel that the stressor is less controllable by them, resulting in a tendency not to use problem-focused coping. Special offer! The results showed that those who had self-affirmed were more accepting of the health message. It includes a new chapter on the measurement of health status and new sections on professional issues . However, according to Leventhal, interviews encourage subjects to express their own beliefs, not those expected by the interviewer. Perhaps these variables should be measured separately. Research has shown that mere exposure to novel foods can change childrens preferences. Kinsey argued that the sexual drive was a biological force and the expression of this drive to attain pleasure was not only acceptable but desirable. West, R. (2005) Time for a change: putting the Transtheoretical (Stages of Change) model to rest, Addiction, 100: 10369. Such interventions are aimed at all individuals, not just those who seek help. What does all this research mean? 08 health848.ch08 16/4/07 2:55 pm Page 195 THE BROADER SOCIAL CONTEXT Discourses about sex, HIV and illness Sex also takes place within the broader context of theories and discussions about sex, HIV and illness. The results showed that stressors, fate or luck were more common beliefs about causes when using interval rating scales (i.e. The reviewers were: Deborah Biggerstaff, University of Warwick Sheila Bonas, University of Leicester Heather Buchanan, University of Derby Orla Dunn, Coventry University Peter La Cour, Copenhagen University, Denmark Omer van der Bergh, University of Leuven, Belgium Finally, every effort has been made to contact copyright holders to secure permission to republish material in this textbook, and to include correct acknowledgements where required. (1995) reported that immediately after the miscarriage the majority of the sample experienced elevated levels of psychological morbidity compared to a community cohort and a pregnant control group, much of which persisted up until the 12-month follow-up. taking pills, going to the doctor, resting, talking to friends about emotions) and avoidance coping (e.g. It is my fault) and guilt (e.g. They found that increased social support predicted a decrease in mortality rate. Skrabanek (1988: 1156) specifically expressed an awareness of the negative consequences of screening in his statement that the hazards of screening are undisputed: they include false positives leading to unnecessary investigations and treatments, with resulting iatrogenic morbidity both physical and psychological. Being internally focused has also been shown to relate to a perception of slower recovery from illness (Miller et al. This means that combining research on longevity across the years is difcult as people at different times have been managed in very different ways. Background Dieters have been shown to overeat following a high calorie preload. The results suggest that the best predictor of breast self-examination was confidence in carrying out the examination (self-efficacy) and the best predictor of attending for cervical smears was having a lower fear of the consequences of the investigation (barriers). Physical Science I am stupid, The interviewer was biased). Although the reasons that pre-operative information is so successful remain unclear, it is possible that preoperative information may be beneficial to the individual in terms of the reduction of anxiety by enabling the patient to mentally rehearse their anticipated worries, fears and changes following the operation; thus any changes become predictable. The outcome of such interventions has traditionally been assessed in terms of a reduction in pain intensity and pain perception. (1998) indicated that individuals who were more dissatisfied with 351 15 health848.ch15 352 16/4/07 3:03 pm Page 352 CHAPTER 15 OBESITY AND CORONARY HEART DISEASE their body shape at baseline were more successful, suggesting that motivations for weight loss guided by a high value placed on attractiveness may also be important. . Modern-day placebos Recently placebos have been studied more specifically and have been found to have a multitude of effects. Studies have shown that doctors clinical information collected subsequent to the development of a hypothesis may be systematically distorted to support the original hypothesis (Wallsten 1978). 1980, 1997; Leventhal and Nerenz 1985) defined illness cognitions as a patients own implicit common sense beliefs about their illness. This chapter does not aim to cover all of them but will describe four key health issues. All these methods involve a level of interpretation (by the researcher, the health professional or the patient). The authors concluded from this study that SCT (social cognition theory) may not be a robust framework for explaining dietary 06 health848.ch06 16/4/07 2:52 pm Page 139 COGNITIVE MODELS OF EATING BEHAVIOUR behaviour in children (Resnicow et al. Pleasant activity scheduling. The UK National Food Survey collects data on food intake in the home, which can be analysed to assess changes in food intake over the past 50 years. The most common reasons for never drinking alcohol were religion and not liking it. Risk factors for CHD Many risk factors for CHD have been identified. It highlights the possibility of adapting models to the specific factors related to a specific behaviour. This theory suggests that individuals make sense of their world by comparing themselves with others. Similarly, Siegman and Snow (1997) argued that the expression of anger and hostility might be a better predictor of stress reactivity and 263 11 health848.ch11 264 16/4/07 2:57 pm Page 264 CHAPTER 11 STRESS AND ILLNESS subsequent health outcomes than the state of either anger or hostility on their own. The results showed increased ratings of mood and physical well-being during baseline and training sessions for all interventions. pointed to increased absenteeism following a diagnosis of hypertension and suggested that the diagnosis may have caused distress. The authors conclude that for HIV-positive men 317 14 health848.ch14 318 16/4/07 3:03 pm Page 318 CHAPTER 14 HIV AND CANCER who already show a detectable viral load, stress management may enhance the beneficial effects of their anti-retroviral treatment. Second, it has been argued that they are even less successful in predicting actual behaviour. Totman, R.G. Their results indicated no obvious association between the increase in obesity and the changes in food intake (see Figure 15.6). The TRA was the first cognition model to include measures of individuals cognitions about their social world in the form of subjective norms. 6 To what extent is our food intake governed by taste? Chapter 10 examines research on stress in terms 01 health848.ch01 16/4/07 2:40 pm Page 9 THE STRUCTURE OF THIS BOOK of its definition and measurement and Chapter 11 assesses the links between stress and illness via changes in both physiology and behaviour and the role of moderating variables. For example, Bradley (1985) examined patients attributions for responsibility for their diabetes and reported that perceived control over illness (is the diabetes controllable by me or a powerful other?) influenced the choice of treatment by these patients. They have also been used to explore the impact of stress on the individuals health status whereby stress in seen as the input variable (i.e. For example, Smith et al. What is the second disease concept? This book provides a detailed analysis and background to relapse prevention and applies this approach to a variety of addictive behaviours. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Buckingham: Open University Press. Within this analysis disinhibitory overeating is indicative of a shift from high to low self-awareness and a subsequent reduction in inhibitions. Leys cognitive hypothesis model, and its emphasis on patient satisfaction, understanding and recall, has been influential in terms of promoting research into the communication between health professionals and patients. Furthermore, although some people may start an exercise routine, maintenance of this routine remains poor. (2003) The Psychology of Eating: From Healthy to Disordered Behaviour. Another factor that influences whether children smoke is the attitude of their school to smoking behaviour. The results showed at one-year follow-up that 3.3 per cent of those who had simply been told to stop smoking were still abstinent, and 5.1 per cent of those who were told to stop and had received a leaflet showed successful cessation. Balancing the different ethical positions and perspectives of medicine can prove difcult. 2 Changes in theory represent improvement. Lung cancer may cause impairment to the lungs and heart disease results in impairment of the cardiovascular system. However, problems with this study include the absence of a direct measure of social support and the implicit assumption that marriage is an effective source of social support. The results also showed that those who received a leaflet (regardless of level of detail) reported higher vulnerability to cervical cancer, greater response efficacy and higher intentions to quit smoking. This provides a detailed analysis of the psychosocial factors involved in the development of chronic pain. The results indicated that pain reduction in both groups was equal, and the authors concluded that the belief that the individual had had an operation was sufficient to cause pain reduction and alleviation of the angina. Stress reactivity, stress recovery, allostatic load and stress resistance all influence an individuals reaction to a stressor. The re-examination was briefer than the original health check but it involved re-measurement of the same profile and lifestyle factors. 341 15 health848.ch15 3:03 pm Page 342 CHAPTER 15 OBESITY AND CORONARY HEART DISEASE What effect does exercise have on energy expenditure? I tried to keep my feelings to myself) distancing (e.g. If these two factors are in line with each other (e.g. Much research has addressed the impact of coping on the physiological and self-report dimensions of the stress response. Conclusion The study of HIV and AIDS illustrates the role of psychology at different stages of an illness. 3 Self-report measures can be influenced by problems with recall, social desirability, and different participants interpreting the questions in different ways. 1997), about the value of patient-centred consultations (Ogden et al. Stage 3: Appraisal The third stage of the self-regulatory model is appraisal. This paper presents a meta-analysis of the research exploring the links between intentions and behaviour. The evidence for how this is expressed is weak. Holland et al. and Spanswick C.C. . a patient who reports feeling tired all the time may be under stress). The central role of coherence Central to much research on illness beliefs and their relationship to outcome is the importance of a coherent model whereby beliefs about the illness are consistent with beliefs about treatment (Leventhal et al. Informed consent 04 health848.ch04 16/4/07 2:49 pm Page 91 THE PROBLEM OF DOCTOR VARIABILITY therefore relates to a formal process prior to research or clinical work. Prochaska and Velicer 1997, see Chapter 5). With a new four-colour design, the Health Psychology eBook has embedded videos, animations, and exercises, allowing learners to engage with the content in an interactive and fluid manner. Totman does not explain what these unconscious regulating mechanisms may be. This overeating can be understood in terms of the transgression of boundaries, shifts in cognitive set, mood modification, a response to denial, an escape from awareness, a lapse or changes in self-control. Having a sexual career today involves a relationship to risk that is different to that seen previously. In the 1960s and 1970s, primary care developed screening programmes for disorders such as anaemia (Ashworth 1963), diabetes (Redhead 1960), bronchitis (Gregg 1966), cervical cancer (Freeling 1965) and breast cancer (Holleb et al. The subjects were taught how to control their responses to pain using progressive muscle relaxation. Therefore, as soon as food is denied it simultaneously becomes forbidden which translates into eating which undermines any attempts at weight loss. For discussion Consider a recent change in your health changed diet, aimed to get more sleep, change. This book provides an interesting perspective on placebos and the interrelationship among beliefs, behaviours and health. 3 Laboratory researchers can artificially manipulate mediating variables such as control and the presence or absence of social support to assess their impact on the stress response. In his autobiography, John Healy (1991) describes his transition from an alcoholic living on the Grass Arena in London to becoming addicted to chess. 1984). In particular medical sociologists and social anthropologists have examined beliefs about health in terms of lay theories or lay representations. This involves searching for meaning (I know what caused my illness), mastery (I can control my illness) and developing self-esteem (I am better off than a lot of people). This pre-existing factor will influence their choice of hypothesis. 1995) and organic vegetables (Sparks and Shepherd 1992). The chapter then examines the physical and psychological benefits of exercise, describes programmes designed to increase exercise uptake and evaluates social/political and individual predictors of exercise behaviour. However, there are problems with the reporting error theory in that not all symptom changes reported by the patients or reported by the doctor are positive. This chapter covers The prevalence of smoking and alcohol consumption What is an addiction? What is the second disease concept? Used - Acceptable. The Hite Reports Shere Hite (1976, 1981, 1987) published the results from her 20 years of research in her reports on female and male sexuality. They argued that alcohol consumption reduces coronary heart disease via the following mechanisms: (1) a reduction in the production of catecholamines when stressed; (2) the protection of blood vessels from cholesterol; (3) a reduction in blood pressure; (4) self-therapy; and (5) a short-term coping strategy. I Independent variable: the characteristic that appears to cause a change in the dependent variable; for example, smoking interviews in order data from subjects data is a way of de variety of beliefs, interpretations and from a heterogeno group without ma generalizations to population as a wh believed that quali studies are more a access the subjects without contamin data with the resea own expectations. Eysenck (1990) described a cancer-prone personality, and suggests that this is characteristic of individuals who react to stress with helplessness and hopelessness, and individuals who repress emotional reactions to life events. For discussion Do you know anyone who has had either HIV or cancer? What are the aims of this book? 05 health848.ch05 16/4/07 3:18 pm Page 117 INTERVENTIONS TO PROMOTE CESSATION 3 Community-based programmes. Although many individuals exercise for reasons other than health, a MORI poll in 1984 suggested that the second main correlate of exercising is a belief that health and fitness are important (MORI 1984). I feel at risk) are translated into behaviour (e.g. The theory proposes that intentions should be conceptualized as plans of action in pursuit of behavioural goals (Ajzen and Madden 1986) and are a result of the following beliefs: Attitude towards a behaviour, which is composed of either a positive or negative evaluation of a particular behaviour and beliefs about the outcome of the behaviour (e.g. What differentiates stress that produces illness and that which produces a sense of worth is unclear. Discuss. This model has been applied to many different forms of problem solving and is a useful framework for examining clinical decisions (see Figure 4.2). Therefore, for screening to be ethical, it must not only benefit the patient, but it must also have no negative consequences either to the individual or to society as a whole. This chapter covers What does it mean to be healthy? 1987, 1990). Finally, some also described how they felt they may be punished in some way for being so negative towards others. He also argues that if people are to act on threats to their health they need to have a coherent model whereby their beliefs about the nature of the threat are coherent with their beliefs about any action that could be taken. This includes significant others in the immediate environment, particularly parents and the media which offer new information, present role models and illustrate behaviour and attitudes that can be observed and incorporated into the individuals own behavioural repertoire. Measures The following measures were completed before and after the preload: 1 Stroop tasks. (2004) Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000, JAMA, 10(29): 123845. Discuss the role of patient expectations in improvements in health. (1997) coronary heart disease: Ogden, J., Clementi, C. and Aylwin, S. (2006) psychology throughout the Petrie, K.J., Cameron, L.D., Ellis, C.J., Buick, D. and Weinman, J. This computation provides a score which reflects the balance between positive and negative feelings. 9 01 health848.ch01 10 16/4/07 2:40 pm Page 10 CHAPTER 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY Questions 1 To what extent does health psychology challenge the assumptions of the biomedical model of health and illness? Cessation of an addictive behaviour can be examined in terms of the processes involved in cessation and the interventions designed to motivate individuals to quit their behaviour. This study examines the role of the PMT in predicting sexual behaviour and in addition examines the effect of expanding the PMT to include variables such as coping styles, social norms and previous behaviour. However, evaluating the effectiveness of such procedures raises several ethical and methodological problems, and these are addressed by Greer et al. 1997). 1987). Changes were compared to a control group who received no intervention. With reference to eating and smoking, the desire to smoke may be labelled as hunger and therefore satiated by food intake. The results from this study suggest that adherence to the drug was related to being motivated to lose weight by a life event rather than just the daily hassles of being obese. However, there are some problems with this perspective as follows: Much of the research carried out within this perspective has taken place within the laboratory as a means to provide a controlled environment. Coping styles. ., which presents studies addressing the patients experience. Retaining the breadth of coverage, clarity and relevance that has made it a favourite with students and lecturers, this fourth edition has been thoroughly revised and updated. Understanding beliefs can help these beliefs to be changed. If applied to smoking cessation, the model would suggest the following set of beliefs and behaviours at the different stages: 1 Pre-contemplation: I am happy being a smoker and intend to continue smoking. This edited book provides an excellent review of the intervention literature including an analysis of the problems with designing interventions and with their evaluation. There was little evidence that the women in the sample tried to gain control over their lives in general. (1978) found that 22 per cent of patients had forgotten the treatment regime recommended by their doctors. . Furthermore, the conditioning effects, reporting error and misattribution process may only occur if the individual believes that health professionals in white coats can treat illness, that hospitals are where people get better and that medical interventions should produce positive results. There are three levels of immune system activity. 2001, 2002; Nyklicek et al. 1984; Gardner et al. et al. Combining these contradictory outcomes and deciding upon the right way forward can be a complex and difcult process. Treatment of the psychological consequences of illness may have an impact on longevity. In addition, these data provide a relationship context for individual beliefs and cognitions. The subjects were asked to complete coping cards to describe their maladaptive thoughts and adaptive coping thoughts. 159 07 health848.ch07 160 16/4/07 2:53 pm Page 160 CHAPTER 7 EXERCISE The possible reasons for the effects of exercise on longevity are as follows: 1 Reduction in blood pressure: physical activity has an inverse relationship to both diastolic and systolic blood pressure. Reviewed in the United Kingdom on October 20, 2018, Great book covers alot of ground in relation to health conditions and different factors relating to health i.e. Exercise may help promote weight loss/maintenance (see Chapter 15 for details of exercise and obesity). Leventhal and colleagues argued that interviews are the best way to access illness cognitions as this methodology avoids the possibility of priming the subjects.
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